Assignment of literature

 Name :- Rizvi syeda mariyam zehra 

College :- Maharanishree Nankuwarba mahila arts and Commerce College 

Subject :- English 

Professor Name :- Shivani maam  

Date of submission  :- 23/02/2026

T.Y.B.A SEM : 6

Paper Name  :- Major 15

                                                Literary theory and criticism 

Class assignment 

•   Introduction to Literary Theory and Criticism

Literary theory and criticism is the study, analysis, and interpretation of literature. It

 helps readers understand how and why a literary text means what it does. Instead of

 only enjoying a poem, novel, or play as a story, literary criticism encourages us to look

 deeper into its language, structure, themes, and social meaning.

Literary criticism is the practice of analyzing and evaluating literary works, while literary

 theory provides the ideas, principles, and frameworks that guide this analysis. In simple

 words, theory gives us the tools, and criticism is how we use those tools on texts.

From ancient times, scholars have tried to explain what makes literature meaningful and

 valuable. Plato and Aristotle were among the earliest thinkers who discussed literature,

 art, and imitation. Over time, different theories developed, each focusing on different

 aspects of literature—such as the author, the text, the reader, society, history, gender, or

 psychology.

Literary theory helps readers:

  •   Understand deeper meanings of texts

  •   Develop critical thinking

  •   See literature from different perspectives

  •   Connect literature with society, culture, and history

Some major approaches in literary theory include Formalism, Marxism, Feminism,

 Psychoanalytic theory, Structuralism, Post-structuralism, and Postcolonial theory. Each

 approach offers a unique way of reading and interpreting a literary work.

Historical Development of Literary Theory

The development of literary theory has taken place over many centuries. Each period

 introduced new ways of understanding literature, influenced by philosophy, society, and

 culture.

1. Classical Period (Ancient Greece & Rome)

  This is the foundation stage of literary theory.

  •   Plato viewed literature as imitation (mimesis) and believed poetry could mislead people.

  •   Aristotle, in Poetics, defended literature and said tragedy creates catharsis (emotional purification).

  •   He discussed plot, character, theme, diction, spectacle, and music.

📌 Focus: Nature and function of literature

2. Medieval Period

Literature was mainly influenced by religion and morality.

  •   Texts were read to find moral and spiritual meanings.

  •   Literature served religious teaching rather than artistic pleasure.

📌 Focus: Moral lessons and religious interpretation

3. Renaissance Period (14th–17th Century)

This period marked the revival of classical ideas and humanism.

  •   Emphasis on individualism, beauty, and human emotions.

  •   Critics followed classical rules but allowed creativity.

📌 Focus: Human experience and artistic excellence

4. Neoclassical Period (17th–18th Century)

This age valued order, reason, and discipline.

  •   Literature followed strict rules like unity of time, place, and action.

  •   Writers believed literature should teach and delight.

 📌 Focus: Rules, form, and rationality

5. Postmodern & Contemporary Period (Mid–Late 20th Century 

This stage introduced multiple perspectives.

  •   Structuralism: underlying structures of language

  •   Post-structuralism / Deconstruction: unstable meanings

  •   Marxism: class and power

  •   Feminism: gender and patriarchy

  •   Postcolonialism: colonial impact and identity

📌 Focus: Power, identity, culture, and reader interpretation

                                   Major Approaches to Literary Theory

Literary theory offers different approaches to understand and interpret literary texts. Each approach focuses on a particular aspect such as the text, author, reader, society, or culture.

1. Formalism / New Criticism

This approach studies the text itself, ignoring the author’s life and historical background.

Key Focus 

  •   Structure

  •   Language

  •   Imagery

  •   Symbolism

2. Marxist Criticism

This approach examines literature in relation to class struggle, power, and economic conditions.

Key focus:

  •   Rich vs poor

  •   Capitalism

  •   Ideology

3. Feminist Criticism

This approach studies the representation of women, gender roles, and patriarchy.

Key focus:

  •   Women’s oppression

  •   Gender inequality

  •   Female identity

4. Psychoanalytic Criticism

Based on Freud’s theories, it focuses on the human mind and subconscious desires.

Key focus:

  •   Emotions

  •   Trauma

  •   Dreams

5. Reader-Response Criticism

This theory says meaning is created by the reader, not just the text.

Key focus:

  •   Reader’s experience

  •   Interpretation

                                          Core Concepts in Literary Theory.                                                        

Literary theory is based on four main concepts that help us understand how meaning is created in literature: Text, Author, Reader, and Context.

1. Text

The text is the literary work itself—its language, structure, style, imagery, and symbols.

  •   Focuses on what is written

  •   Meaning is found within the words of the text

Example:

In a poem, the rhyme scheme, metaphors, and imagery are part of the text.

📌 Related theory: Formalism / New Criticism

2. Author

The author refers to the writer’s life, intentions, experiences, and beliefs.

  •   Meaning is linked to what the author wanted to express

  •   The author’s background influences the text

Example:

Understanding Shashi Deshpande’s experiences as an Indian woman helps explain themes in That Long Silence.

📌 Related theory: Biographical Criticism

3. Reader

The reader plays an active role in creating meaning.

  •   Different readers may interpret the same text differently

  •   Personal experiences shape understanding

Example:

One reader sees How I Taught My Grandmother to Read as a story of education, another as empowerment.

📌 Related theory: Reader-Response Criticism

4. Context

Context includes the social, historical, cultural, political, and economic conditions surrounding a text.

  •   Meaning changes when context is considered

  •   Helps connect literature with real life

Example:

Karma by Khushwant Singh makes more sense when read in the colonial Indian context.

📌 Related theory: Historical, Marxist, Postcolonial Criticism

                                   Relationship Between the Four Concepts

                          Concept.                                                                         Focus

                          Text.                                                                         Language and structure          

                          Author.                                                                     Intention and background       

                         Reader.                                                                    Interpretation.                            

                         Context.                                                                  Society and history                      

Conclusion

Literary theory and criticism play a vital role in deepening our understanding of

 literature. They provide systematic frameworks that help readers analyze texts beyond

 surface meaning, encouraging critical thinking and multiple interpretations. Through

 various approaches—such as formalist, feminist, Marxist, psychoanalytic, and

 postcolonial theories—literature is examined in relation to language, authorial intention,

 reader response, and social context. Literary theory does not limit interpretation;

 instead, it expands it by revealing how texts reflect human experience, cultural values,

 and historical realities. Thus, literary theory and criticism transform literature from

 simple storytelling into a meaningful intellectual and cultural exploration.

Home assignment 

                                  Poetics by Aristotle (Concept of Tragedy)                                                  

Aristotle’s Poetics: Concept of Tragedy

Aristotle’s Poetics is one of the earliest and most important works of literary criticism. In

 this text, Aristotle analyzes Greek drama and defines the nature, purpose, and elements

 of tragedy.

Definition of Tragedy

According to Aristotle, tragedy is:

“The imitation (mimesis) of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain

 magnitude; in language embellished with artistic ornament; in the form of action, not

 narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purification (catharsis) of these

 emotions.”

Explanation of the Definition

  •   Imitation (Mimesis): Tragedy imitates human actions, not people.

  •   Serious and Complete Action: The action must be meaningful and have a beginning, middle, and end.

  •   Certain Magnitude: The story should be neither too short nor too long.

  •   Embellished Language: Use of rhythm, harmony, and song.

  •   Dramatic Form: Presented through action and dialogue, not narration.

  •   Pity and Fear: Tragedy arouses these emotions.

  •   Catharsis: Emotional purification or release experienced by the audience.

Six Elements of Tragedy

Aristotle identifies six essential elements, ranked in order of importance:

1. Plot (Mythos) – Most important

  •   Structure of events

  •   Should be unified and logical

  •   Includes peripeteia (reversal) and anagnorisis (recognition)

2. Character (Ethos)

  •   Characters must be good, appropriate, realistic, and consistent

  •   The tragic hero is usually noble but flawed

3. Thought (Dianoia)

  •   Ideas, themes, and moral reasoning in the play

4. Diction (Lexis)

  •   Choice of words and style of language

5. Music (Melos)

  •   Chorus and songs that enhance emotional effect

6. Spectacle (Opsis) – Least important

  •   Visual elements like scenery and costumes

Tragic Hero

Aristotle describes the tragic hero as:

  •   A noble or high-born person

  •   Neither completely good nor evil

  •   Possesses hamartia (tragic flaw)

  •   Falls from prosperity to misery

Example: Oedipus in Oedipus Rex

Key Concepts in Tragedy

  •   Hamartia: Error or tragic flaw

  •   Peripeteia: Sudden reversal of fortune

  •   Anagnorisis: Moment of recognition or discovery

  •   Catharsis: Emotional purification of pity and fear

Purpose of Tragedy

The main purpose of tragedy is to:

  •   Arouse pity and fear

  •   Provide moral insight

  •   Offer emotional cleansing to the audience

Importance of Aristotle’s Theory

Aristotle is one of the greatest philosophers and literary critics of ancient Greece. His

 ideas, especially those explained in Poetics, have had a lasting influence on literature,

 drama, and criticism. Aristotle’s theory is important because it gives a systematic and

 scientific approach to understanding literature.

1. Foundation of Literary Criticism

Aristotle’s theory laid the foundation of Western literary criticism. Before him, criticism

 was mostly philosophical or moral. Aristotle studied literature logically and explained

 how a work of art should be structured.

2. Concept of Tragedy

Aristotle defined tragedy as an imitation of a serious action that arouses pity and fear,

 leading to catharsis (emotional purification). This idea helped critics and writers

 understand the emotional purpose of drama.

3. Importance of Plot

According to Aristotle, plot is the soul of tragedy. He emphasized unity, coherence, and

 logical sequence of events. This principle helped dramatists create well-structured and

 meaningful plays.

4. Theory of Mimesis (Imitation)

Aristotle believed literature is an imitation of life, but not a mere copy. It represents

 universal truths about human nature. This idea elevated literature as a creative and

 intellectual activity, not just entertainment.

5. Character and Moral Insight

Aristotle stressed that characters should be realistic, consistent, and morally significant.

 This helped writers create characters that audiences could relate to and learn from.

6. Concept of Catharsis

Catharsis explains why tragedy gives pleasure despite dealing with suffering. It shows

 how art can heal emotions and provide psychological relief, making literature socially

 valuable.

7. Influence on Later Literature

Aristotle’s ideas influenced writers and critics during the Renaissance, Neo-classical

 period, and even modern times. His principles shaped drama, poetry, and narrative art

 for centuries.

Conclusion

Aristotle’s concept of tragedy in Poetics remains one of the most influential theories in

 literary criticism. By defining tragedy as an imitation of a serious and complete action

 that arouses pity and fear and leads to catharsis, Aristotle explains the emotional and

 moral purpose of drama. His emphasis on plot as the soul of tragedy, along with well-

drawn characters, appropriate language, and unity of action, provides a logical and

 systematic framework for understanding dramatic art.

The theory shows that tragedy is not mere entertainment but a powerful medium that

 reveals universal truths about human life and emotions. Even after centuries, Aristotle’s

 ideas continue to guide writers, critics, and readers, proving that his concept of tragedy

 is timeless and central to the study of literature.

                                                                       Eassy.                                                                                 

                                           Preface to the plays of Shakespeare’s

                                                     BY Dr. Samuel Johnson’s

                                          

Dr. Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare is one of the most important works of English

 literary criticism. Written in 1765, it offers a balanced and thoughtful evaluation of

 William Shakespeare’s genius. Johnson neither blindly praises nor harshly condemns

 Shakespeare; instead, he critically examines his strengths and weaknesses with honesty and fairness.

Johnson praises Shakespeare for his deep understanding of human nature. According to

 him, Shakespeare’s characters are not confined to any specific age or country; they

 represent universal human emotions and behaviour. This quality, Johnson believes, makes

 Shakespeare relevant to all generations. His characters speak the language of common

 people and reflect real life, which gives his plays a natural and realistic appeal.

One of Johnson’s major arguments is in defence of Shakespeare’s violation of the classical

 unities of time, place, and action. Johnson asserts that these unities are not essential to the

 success of drama. What matters more is the unity of action and the ability of the play to

 engage the audience. He argues that Shakespeare’s plays successfully capture the

 imagination of the audience despite ignoring strict classical rules.

Johnson also admires Shakespeare’s ability to blend tragedy and comedy. While classical

 critics considered this a fault, Johnson sees it as a reflection of real life, where joy and

 sorrow exist together. This mixture adds depth and realism to Shakespeare’s plays.

However, Johnson does not hesitate to point out Shakespeare’s faults. He criticizes

 Shakespeare for carelessness in plot construction, excessive use of puns, and occasional

 lack of moral purpose. Johnson believes that Shakespeare sometimes sacrifices structure

 for effect and does not always maintain poetic discipline.

Despite these flaws, Johnson firmly declares Shakespeare as the greatest dramatist of all

 time. His defects, Johnson argues, are minor when compared to his vast contributions to

 literature. Shakespeare’s ability to depict life as it truly is makes him superior to other

 playwrights.